The Challenge of Indian Art

What is art? Is it a purely utilitarian object with some trappings of decoration, or is it pure aesthetics which has absolutely no purpose whatsoever than to appeal, rather hedonistically if you will, to the senses?

This debate has raged amongst art circles from the earliest documented periods of art history : from the seminal essays of Alois Riegl to the lines and periods drawn up by institutions and art academies of the 19th and 20th centuries. This distinction between art and artisanship, between the artist and the artisan, is also coincidentally one of the chief divisions that separate South Asian, or Indian art, from its counterpart in the West. Indian art has often been held to be repetitive, a craft rather than a display of true and original intent. It is only recently, when paradigms of global histories are being tested in schools and academies across the world, that the appendage position occupied by South Asian art within the canon of art history is being seriously questioned. This in spite of certain scholarly positions that argue for the complete hegemony, as it were, of the Western model of writing histories of and appreciating art. Is the history of Indian art then doomed to forever be in the shadow of a larger, global narrative? These questions are important, for in some ways they allude to the intellectual hegemony held by the Western academy over forms and ways of knowing, where even emerging powers like China and India are forced to adopt methodologies and systems of art appreciation that have been developed in the West.

This is not to say that there have not been laudable attempts at chronicling South Asian art. One of the earliest modern historians of Indian art was Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy. Living in Ceylon during British colonial times, Coomaraswamy did much to inscribe meaning to Indian art and architecture within the Western imagination. For Coomaraswamy, there was no art, or meaning in art, unless one understood the principles that guided its creators. Without an understanding of these principles, Indian art became simply a collection of strange looking gods, fanciful sculptures, and apparently misshapen forms. It took his interpretation of Indian art as a predominantly religious and spiritual work to make the Westerner begin to appreciate art, painting and sculpture especially Hindu art on a basis comparable to that of its Western contemporary. 1

But if making Indian art comprehensible to the Western observer is one of the challenges that faces the writing of a South Asian art history, what is perhaps even more serious is the way that Indian art is often appended as a subsidiary culture to the grand narrative that is the history of Western art. This grand sweep of history from the Pyramids to Picasso, has a very definable center, consisting of the Western Renaissance and its allied movements. To this center all other movements, all other cultures must adhere and spring from. Thus a survey course in art in Western schools, till very recently at least, ran somewhat like the following :

Egyptian, Ancient Near Eastern, and Classical Art; Early Christian, Byzantine and Medieval Art; The Renaissance, Baroque and 18th century Europe; 19th and 20th century Europe; Photography and Film, Art of the United States and Canada; Native American, Pre-Columbian and Latin American Art; Asian Art, Islamic Art; African Art; African Diaspora; Art Criticism and Theory. 2

It is clear from this grouping that the entire gamut of Asian Art (Chinese, South-East Asia, South Asia and even Middle Eastern) is clubbed under the catch-all phrase Asian Art - a category that comes much after mainstream European art, and is clubbed with overtly religious classes like Islamic Art, with a hint of primitivism like Latin American and African Art, and certainly is an offshoot of the main branches of art history. This is the second challenge that South Asian art faces: to evolve and emerge from being an offshoot of the art history tree to being a unique discipline in its own right. Much like architecture, South Asian art faces the challenge of being marginalized, of having to answer to canons that are developed in the West. This quasi-Darwinian legacy of Asian art also means that Asian artists are forever struggling to make their art answer to principles of art appreciation that have been evolved in the West, making Indian art a branch, not a main focus of study. Indian art remains Indian, and struggles to make the leap from its prefix to that of simply art.

This introduction to Indian art strives to overcome these fallacies in different ways : by ascribing meaning and intent to Indian art, by unearthing the purpose of the artisan and patron so as to ascribe a meaning that can be judged on the basis of original intent rather than Western aesthetics, and also by treating Indian art at a par with its Western contemporaries.

This introduction will also avoid dividing Indian art into dynasties, avoiding narrow divisions such as Gupta art, Hellenic art, Islamic art, and so on. The reason for this is that art in the Indian subcontinent was as much a product of traveling groups of artisans rather than dynastic or kingly patronage. This is the reason why Hellenic art, for example, can be found in South Asia just as much as Greece, why Persian influences mix with the Hellenic in Kushan art, and why Rajasthani schools of painting and Mughal schools borrow so much from each other to create a composite picture of miniature painting.

The second facet of this introduction is its geographic sweep. Indian art I purposely avoid for the moment the word South Asian also includes within its ambit influences from, and outward impulses to, geographies of the world as diverse as Indonesia, Thailand, China, Japan, Persia and Central Asia. This series will attempt to bring these diverse influences, where possible, under question and examine the truly continental nature of ancient and medieval Indian art, as also the global influences that modern Indian art has imbibed, as also the ways in which a globalized, connected world has influenced the production of art in South Asia. It is only by stressing upon the global nature of South Asian art that we can perhaps make the jump from treating this subject as an offshoot of the world history of art, to a synchronous event in world history that is as connected to its global cousins as it is indivisible from them. This approach would be proper, as it is no longer possible for the serious student or professional of art or cultural history to remain within a narrow confine of cultures, continents or time periods.

References:
1. Ananda K Coomaraswamy. An Approach to Indian Art. Parnassus, Vol. 7 No 7 pp. 17-20
2. Robert S Nelson. The Map of Art History The Art Bulletin Vol 79 No. 1 pp. 28-40.

Images:
Detail from Three Pujarins. Jamini Roy.
Detail from Portrait of a Gentleman, Raja Ravi Varma.

A Hindu Wedding in Nepal

"You have been destined to live together as husband and wife from your previous lives," said the young priest in Kathmandu as Raj and Claudia sat down cross-legged in front of the altar where scores of sacrificial objects were spread out on small cups made of banana leaves held together with tooth-pick sticks.

Not all the stainless-steel thalis and Meissen porcelain would be ritually pure in comparison to the hand-made natural taparas for the Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. And there they were, a German-Nepalese pair, out to receive the blessings of the Banaras-educated Sanskrit-reciting Brahmin priest. In civil-life he worked for the Nepalese government, but since he was a Brahmin and a jyotishi at that, he would be invited to carry out all forms of puja by the Hindu population of Kathmandu.

Long before they'd planned the journey to Kathmandu, Darjeeling and Sikkim, Deviji had consulted her house-bahun so that the time of the rituals could be coordinated with astronomically calculated time factors. An auspicious day for the wedding had been found, for the human being is a microcosm of the rhythm of the universe.

Claudia, Raj's German-wedded wife, sat near him full of expectation and excitement. A young daughter is treated as a holy person, even holier than the cows that you see in the streets of Nepal, Sikkim and India and a young daughter brings a lot of positive aspects or punya to her parents. Normally, the parents of the bride wash the feet of both bride and groom. The foot-washing is accompanied by the recitations of Vedic lore by the Bahun priest beckoned by the parents of the bride.

Since Claudia and Raj were already married in Freiburg (Germany) at the Standesamt, it was decided to skip the foot-washing and the kanyadan ceremony. Claudia was told by the brahmin to get up and accompany Neeta and her sister Geeta to the adjacent room to change clothes.

In the meantime, the brahmin performed a graha shanti jap during which Vedic prayers and sacrifices are made to the Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. The reason the graha-shanti ritual puja was performed was because Deviji s younger son had died two years ago, and she and her two daughters had mourned for a whole year in order to appease the departed soul. The priest had a lot of patience, and explained which Gods and Goddesses were symbolically represented by the figures and Raj translated it into German for Claudia.

After the graha-shanti ritual was over, the priest performed the bratha-bandhana ceremony during which Raj received the long sacred thread that Hindus from the higher castes wear across their bare chests. He had gone to Germany two decades ago "for further studies" having done his Bachelor's Degree in Zoology and Botany from Kathmandu's Tri Chandra College, and had met his Allemanic wife at the Freiburger University ballroom-dance. They'd realized that they were both passionate rumba-dancers, the queen of all the dances, and had a lot of things in common despite their different ethnic origins.

"And now I will give you a personal secret mantra which you can repeat whenever, and wherever, you are in the world, a mantra that will bring you peace and tranquility," said the priest. Raj had to repeat the mantra thrice and after that the ladies were beckoned into the altar-room. Neeta and Geeta had helped Claudia drape a sari.

Claudia appeared in a scarlet sari and blouse and traditional jewellery. Her brown and blonde hair was parted in the middle. She wore pearls on her ears, decorated with gold, and a shy smile on her face. She seemed to be enjoying the entire tamasha. She sat near Raj and the priest performed the ceremony with the rest of the family members, who received sacred threads on their right wrists after making a number of sacrifices to the Gods and Goddesses by sprinkling them with jamara and holy water. This was followed by the entire family chanting "Om jaya jagadisha hare" to the accompaniment of a small ritual damaru (drum), the chiming of a bell and the blowing of a conch.

Then came the actual swayamvara-ceremony with the sacrificial fire, which was made in the form of a quadrangle that enclosed the ritual article: the sacred altar with the fire in the centre.

Various offerings were made to the deities: Ganesh, Agni the God of Fire, the sky, wind, earth, water, and the Hindu trinity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Sacrificial rituals have been an essential part of the Vedic way of life. The sacrifice is simple, but its meaning can be complex.

That was followed by the sindur-potay ceremony. Raj had to place vermillion (sindur) as a sign of marriage on the parting of Claudia's hair. A Hindu bride is expected to apply the sindur as long as her husband lives. Claudia bowed her head and he placed the potay-necklace on her slender neck.

After that, they were obliged to walk around the sacrificial fire three times. In Hinduism, Agni is not only the God of Fire and ritual but also the fire itself and summons the power of the Sun God Surya to the sacrificial altar.

Now Claudia was extremely scared of fire, and Raj told the priest about her phobia. Since he was a tolerant Brahmin, he said they could improvise and do it fast. Claudia took a deep breath and ran like a hare. Neeta had never seen a bride wearing a red sari run around the fire so fast in her life. She'd told her once that she'd been the fastest girl in the 100 meter-sprint in the German Prefecture Baden W|rttemberg during her school days but this beat anything.

The ritual ceremony was over and Claudia was relieved and sat down next to Raj in the sofa for the family photographs. He looked silly with his Nepali topi which sat at an abominably rakish angle, and kept falling off his head because it was a wee bit too small for his cranium. Claudia had to wear a scarlet shawl over her vermilion-strewn head, as the bride has to hide the sindur on her head for the entire evening.

Claudia was the toast of Kathmandu in the days to come with her conspicuous scarlet-sindur and her yellow salwar-kameez, as she walked along Kathmandu's bustling Asan Tole buying Nepalese apples and papayas from the Terai. It had been great fun shopping with her and little Evelyn. Claudia had learned a bit of Nepali, after all she was an anthropologist, and it was cute to hear her and Neeta's niece say, 'dhanyabad, namaste, ramro chha' in Nepali.

And here she was visiting them in their German surroundings after a 8000 km flight that had lasted 12 hours.
Source here.

New Delhi India

New Delhi India

Delhi spread out over the west bank of the Yamuna river and has its own historic values. Delhi developed itself as historic city old delhi and modern metro city New Delhi.
Look at the traditions and cultural values at Old Delhi where Muslim shopkeepers in Chandni Chowk, Turbaned Sikhs, colorfully dressed Rajasthani and Gujarati women, Tibetans and Ladakhis in the street stalls, Janpath and Kashmiris in the handicrafts emporims around Connaught Place, all added different colours of Indian culture at one place called Delhi. Along with tall moderns buildings, posh residential colonies and busy commercial places can be seen along with the ancient historical and heritage monuments. In some places it can be also seen as jam-packed with heavy dirty traffic, dirty beggars around the traffics, black Yamuna river, street magicians, pick pockets, local transportation buses in bad conditions and their dirty conductors and driver, crowded buses, people

It has fashion centers, boutiques and shopping malls shops and store for traditional and contemporary Indian crafts and handicrafts from all over the country. Old Delhi
Known for its crowded markets and roads, thousands of traditional buildings and monuments standing and witness of past 100s of years have been changed the city face.

Shahi Mosque, sikh’s Gurudwaras temples of Hindus and Jians, Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Delhi Gate and old iron Yamuna Bridge built by britishers, still standing however its working time period has already expired but still it is in working condition, rust free, it is a sample of intelligent and quality architecture.

Delhi India ! Delhi is the capital of India, it is known as old delhi and new delhi, Old Delhi known for its historical values, and New Delhi known for its modernity, the famous tourist destinations are Red fort, Humayun's Tomb, Jama Masjid, Old fort, India Gate, Lotus temple, Jantar mantar, Qutub Minar, Chandni Chowk.

Location: North Center of India
Famous As: Capital of India
Delhi History: Shahjahan decided to shift his capital from Agra to New Delhi.
State: New Delhi, India

'Old' Delhi, “the heart of Delhi” was the capital of India between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries, is full of awesome forts, mosques and monuments. Old Delhi is a lively area of colourful bazaars, narrow streets and hardly controlled confusion. In contrast, New Delhi, the grand city created by the British Raj, is balanced of spacious, tree-lined avenues and striking government buildings, and has a sense of order. Tourists to Delhi get two cities Old Delhi and New Delhi for the price of one.

Attractions & Places in Delhi - India

New Delhi is an international metropolis with excellent tourist spots, recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. There are several beautiful and historic architectures and places to see. New Delhi covered with green trees and gardens which are amazing part of New Delhi. New Delhi is also a dream city for visitors looking for items of handicrafts, not only the rich artistic crafts of its own craftsmen but also of craftsmen from all over the country. New Delhi offers a huge number of interesting places and attractions to the tourist.
Red fort, India Gate, Jama Masjid, Old Fort, lotus temple, Humayu Tomb, Safdarjang Tomb, Several Dargah, Parliament House, National Zoological park, Chandni Chowk Bazar, Canaught Place, Janpath, Qutub Minar and several other monuments and places.

New Delhi Tourist Attractions

New Delhi is an international metropolis with excellent tourist spots, recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. There are several beautiful and historic architectures and places to see. New Delhi covered with green trees and gardens which are amazing part of New Delhi. New Delhi is also a dream city for visitors looking for items of handicrafts, not only the rich artistic crafts of its own craftsmen but also of craftsmen from all over the country. New Delhi offers a huge number of interesting places and attractions to the tourist.

Rashtrapati Bhawan
New Delhi centers around the Rashtrapati Bhawan This graceful building is a very impressive architectural building standing at a height, is truly worth seeing, for its historic significance and architectural beauty. The beautiful Mughal Gardens, which is open to the public in spring, is an added lure. Mughal Gardens is surely a place to see.

India Gate
India Gate a memorial decorated with the names of the brave Indian soldiers who laid down their lives in first World War. The evening at India gate is famous for its beauty with green lawns, standing trees in a queue and the attraction to see local crowd in the lawns at India Gate. A must visit beautiful place in New Delhi.

Red Fort

It is a history standing itself in Old Delhi with its proof. When Shahjahan decided to shift his capital from Agra to New Delhi, the decision for constructing the fort was taken in 1639. The Red Fort still retains some of its lost glory. The Red Fort was the last fort built in New Delhi. this royal building made of red sandstone is the location from where the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation every Independence Day

Raj Ghat
Raj Ghat On the bank of the renowned Yamuna river, which flows past New Delhi, there is Raj Ghat-the last resting place of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation.
Shanti Vana
Lying close to the Raj Ghat, the Shanti Vana (literally, the forest of peace) is the place where India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was cremated. The area is now a beautiful park adorned by trees planted by visiting dignitaries and heads of state.

Qutab Minar
The Qutab Minar India is located at a small village called Mehrauli in South New Delhi. Qutub-ud-din Aibak built Qutub Minar during the reign of Sultan in 1199 A.D in Delhi-India.It is a fluted red sandstone tower, which tapers up to a height of 72.5 metres and is covered with intricate carvings and verses from the holy Qur'an. Qutab Minar India is a landmark of New Delhi and a place to remember history.

Laxminarayan Temple
Also called the Birla Mandir, the Laxminarayan Temple was built by the Birla family in 1938. It is a temple with a large garden and fountains behind it. The temple attracts thousands of devotees on Janmashtami day, the birthday of Lord Krishna.

Humayun's Tomb
Humayun’s Tomb Designed by a Persian architect named Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, and completed in 1556, the structure was a trendsetter of the time by remains a must visit place in New Delhi till date. Built by Humayun's wife, Hamida Begum, in 1556, nine years after Humayun's death, this elegantly balanced tomb, set on a platform amidst a garden, is believed to have influenced the design of the Taj Mahal.

Chandni Chowk
Chandni Chowk (India) remains Asia's largest wholesale market Chandni Chowk (India) the living legacy of New Delhi (India) is Shahjahanabad. Created by the builder of Taj Mahal (India), this city, with the Red Fort (India) as the focal point and Jama Masjid (India) as the praying centre, has a charming market planned, called Chandni Chowk (India). Shahjahan planned Chandni Chowk (India). It was divided by canals filled with water, which glisten like silver in moonlight. The canals are now closed.

Bahai Temple / Lotus Temple
The Bahai Temple, situated in South New Delhi, is shaped like a lotus.

Old Fort / Purana Quila
This is also a historic symbol standing itself to show its royalty. The Purana Quila is a good example of medieval military architecture. Purana Qila (India) Built by Humayun, the Purana Quila (India) is a monument of bold design, which is strong, simple and every inch a castle. It is different from the well planned, carefully decorated, and palatial forts of the later Mughal rulers. The main purpose of this fort was its utility, with less weight on decoration. The Qal'a-I-Kunha Masjid and the Sher Mandal are two important monuments inside the fort.

Jama Masjid
Built during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid's large courtyard, onion domes and central tank are built of red sandstone and white marble in the Indo-Islamic style.

a summary essay Partition of India

Timeline leading to Partition

1858- The India Act: power transferred to British Government.

1885- Indian National Congress founded by Allen. O. Hume to unite all Indians and strengthen bonds with Britain.

1905- First Partition of Bengal for administrative purposes. Gives the Muslims a majority in that state.

1906- All India Muslim League founded to promote Muslim political interests.

1909-Revocation of Partition of Bengal. Creates anti-British and anti-Hindu sentiments among Muslims as they lose their majority in East Bengal.

1916-Lucknow Pact. The Congress and the League unite in demand for greater self-government. It is denied by the British.

1919- Amritsar Massacre. General Dyer opens fire on 20,000 unarmed Indian civilians at a political demonstration Congress and the League lose faith in the British.

1919-Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (implemented in 1921). Communal representation institutionalised for the first timeas reserved legislative seats are allocated for significant minorities.

1920-Gandhi launches a non-violent, non-cooperation movement, or Satyagraha, against the British for a free India.

1929-Congress calls for full independence.

1930-Dr. Allama Iqbal, a poet-politician, calls for a separate homeland for the Muslims at the Allahabad session of the Muslim League. Gandhi starts Civil Disobedience Movement against the Salt Laws by which the British had a monopoly over production and sale of salt.

1930-31-The Round Table conferences, set up to consider Dominion status for India. They fail because of non-attendance by the Congress and because Gandhi, who does attend, claims he is the only representative of all of India.

1931- Irwin-Gandhi Pact, which concedes to Gandhi's demands at the Round Table conferences and further isolates Muslim League from the Congress and the British.

1935-Government of India Act: proposes a federal India of political provinces with elected local governments but British control over foreign policy and defence.

1937-Elections. Congress gains majority.

1940- Jinnah calls for establishment of Pakistan in an independent and partitioned India.

1942-Cripps Mission o India, to conduct negotiations between all political parties and to set up a cabinet government. Congress adopts Quit India Resolution, to rid India of British rule. Congress leaders arrested for obstructing war effort.

1942-43-Muslim League gains more power: ministries formed in Sind, Bengal and North-West Frontier Province and greater influence in the Punjab.

1944-Gandhi released from prison. Unsuccessful Gandhi-Jinnah talks, but Muslims see this as an acknowledgment that Jinnah represents all Indian Muslims.

1946-Muslim League participates in Interim Government that is set up according to the Cabinet Mission Plan.

1947-Announcement of Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India, 3 June. Partition of India and Pakistan, 15 August. Radcliffe Award of boundaries of the nations, 16 August.

1971-East Pakistan separates from West Pakistan and Bangladesh is born.

India Pakistan Wars

Indo-pak war essay summary

India Pakistan wars : The first test for the Indian armed forces came shortly after independence with the first Indo-Pakistani conflict (1947-48). The military was called upon to defend the borders of the state of Jammu and Kashmir when tribals--principally Pathans--attacked from the northwest reaches of Kashmir on October 22, 1947. India's 161st Infantry Brigade was deployed and thwarted the advance of the tribal forces. In early November 1947, the 161st counterattacked and successfully broke through the enemy defenses. Despite early successes, the Indian army suffered a setback in December because of logistical problems. The problems enabled the forces of Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir, as the part of Kashmir under Pakistani control is called) to take the initiative and force the Indian troops to retreat from the border areas. In the spring of 1948, the Indian side mounted another offensive to retake some of the ground that it had lost. No doubt fearing that the war might move into Pakistan proper, regular units of the Pakistani army became more actively involved. As the conflict escalated, the Indian leadership was quick to recognize that the war could not be brought to a close unless Pakistani support for the Azad Kashmir forces could be stopped. Accordingly, on the advice of Governor General Earl Louis Mountbatten (Britain's last viceroy in India in 1947 and governor general of India, 1947-48), the Indian government sought United Nations (UN) mediation of the conflict on December 31, 1947. There was some opposition to this move within the cabinet by those who did not agree with referring the Kashmir dispute to the UN. The UN mediation process brought the war to a close on January 1, 1949. In all, 1,500 soldiers died on each side during the war.

The second Indo-Pakistani conflict (1965) was also fought over Kashmir and started without a formal declaration of war. It is widely accepted that the war began with the infiltration of Pakistani-controlled guerrillas into Indian Kashmir on about August 5, 1965. Skirmishes with Indian forces started as early as August 6 or 7, and the first major engagement between the regular armed forces of the two sides took place on August 14. The next day, Indian forces scored a major victory after a prolonged artillery barrage and captured three important mountain positions in the northern sector. Later in the month, the Pakistanis counterattacked, moving concentrations near Tithwal, Uri, and Punch. Their move, in turn, provoked a powerful Indian thrust into Azad Kashmir. Other Indian forces captured a number of strategic mountain positions and eventually took the key Haji Pir Pass, eight kilometers inside Pakistani territory.

The Indian gains led to a major Pakistani counterattack on September 1 in the southern sector, in Punjab, where Indian forces were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. The sheer strength of the Pakistani thrust, which was spearheaded by seventy tanks and two infantry brigades, led Indian commanders to call in air support. Pakistan retaliated on September 2 with its own air strikes in both Kashmir and Punjab. The war was at the point of stalemate when the UN Security Council unanimously passed a resolution on September 20 that called for a cease-fire. New Delhi accepted the cease-fire resolution on September 21 and Islamabad on September 22, and the war ended on September 23. The Indian side lost 3,000 while the Pakistani side suffered 3,800 battlefield deaths. The Soviet-brokered Tashkent Declaration was signed on January 10, 1966. It required that both sides withdraw by February 26, 1966, to positions held prior to August 5, 1965, and observe the cease-fire line agreed to on June 30, 1965.

The origins of the third Indo-Pakistani conflict (1971) were different from the previous conflicts. The Pakistani failure to accommodate demands for autonomy in East Pakistan in 1970 led to secessionist demands in 1971 (see The Rise of Indira Gandhi, ch. 1). In March 1971, Pakistan's armed forces launched a fierce campaign to suppress the resistance movement that had emerged but encountered unexpected mass defections among East Pakistani soldiers and police. The Pakistani forces regrouped and reasserted their authority over most of East Pakistan by May.

As a result of these military actions, thousands of East Pakistanis died at the hands of the Pakistani army. Resistance fighters and nearly 10 million refugees fled to sanctuary in West Bengal, the adjacent Indian state. By midsummer, the Indian leadership, in the absence of a political solution to the East Pakistan crisis, had fashioned a strategy designed to assist the establishment of the independent nation of Bangladesh. As part of this strategy, in August 1971, India signed a twenty-year Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. One of the treaty's clauses implied that each nation was expected to come to the assistance of the other in the event of a threat to national security such as that occurring in the 1965 war with Pakistan. Simultaneously, India organized, trained, and provided sanctuary to the Mukti Bahini (meaning Liberation Force in Bengali), the East Pakistani armed resistance fighters.

Unable to deter India's activities in the eastern sector, on December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched an air attack in the western sector on a number of Indian airfields, including Ambala in Haryana, Amritsar in Punjab, and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir. The attacks did not succeed in inflicting substantial damage. The Indian air force retaliated the next day and quickly achieved air superiority. On the ground, the strategy in the eastern sector marked a significant departure from previous Indian battle plans and tactics, which had emphasized set-piece battles and slow advances. The strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armored units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan. Lieutenant General Sagat Singh, who commanded the eighth, twenty-third, and fifty-seventh divisions, led the Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As these forces attacked Pakistani formations, the Indian air force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dhaka airfield out of commission. In the meantime, the Indian navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan. Dhaka fell to combined Indian and Mukti Bahini forces on December 16, bringing a quick end to the war.

Action in the western sector was divided into four segments, from the cease-fire line in Jammu and Kashmir to the marshes of the Rann of Kutch in northwestern Gujarat. On the evening of December 3, the Pakistani army launched ground operations in Kashmir and Punjab. It also started an armored operation in Rajasthan. In Kashmir, the operations were concentrated on two key points, Punch and Chhamb. The Chhamb area witnessed a particularly intense battle where the Pakistanis forced the Indians to withdraw from their positions. In other parts of Kashmir, the Indians made some small gains along the cease-fire line. The major Indian counteroffensive came in the Sialkot-Shakargarh area south and west of Chhamb. There, two Pakistani tank regiments, equipped with United States-made Patton tanks, confronted the Indian First Armored Corps, which had British Centurion tanks. In what proved to be the largest tank battle of the war, both sides suffered considerable casualties.

Though the Indian conduct of the land war on the western front was somewhat timid, the role of the Indian air force was both extensive and daring. During the fourteen-day war, the air force's Western Command conducted some 4,000 sorties. There was little retaliation by Pakistan's air force, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel. Additionally, this lack of retaliation reflected the deliberate decision of the Pakistan Air Force headquarters to conserve its forces because of heavy losses incurred in the early days of the war.

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY

India as a country has been bestowed with several nomenclatures. Right from unity in diversity to birthplace of Hinduism and Sanskrit, the land has always been admired and revered for its rich cultural legacy and variety that it offers. India is a story, a legend, folklore and an anecdote in itself. It needs no introduction, no specific mention. It has continued to thrive for centuries and there are bright chances of it being the next super power. The country has always nourished numerous cultures, traditions and religions. All the major religions thrive in India and none of them have ever felt insecure or unprotected. That’s the beauty of the land.

Go to any part of rich India and you will find numerous temple and shrines and all of them contain their own unique stories. We have always believed in beautiful and fascinating description of Indian Gods and Goddesses. Many stories have been told and retold in different fashions about how particular God originated in a particular place. All the descriptions of deities are believable and they convey just one message of Good winning over the evil. Gods in Indian religion have always fought monsters and even taken human forms to conquer evils in convincing manner. Right from north India to southern and western states, everywhere one can find plenty of amazing tales about our religion and sustenance over the centuries. The essence remains the same, the versions differ.

Indian mythology has always been popular among masses. Its effect can be seen from different religious functions and tales told to the kids by their grandma. The virtues have always been exemplified by the conduct of the Gods. Many present day symbols have been born from our mythology and religious beliefs. For example, Om or Swastika or Trishul etc have always been revered. Religious beliefs are in tune with our traditional way of living and we as staunch believers still believe in following the rules and customs. When you hear of stories about our mythological characters like Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Ravana, Ganesha, Krishna and Bhima etc you get to know about what the essence of India is made of. These characters are now being used in animation movies that will be further helpful in making new generation aware of India’s famous religions and mythology. Religion and mythology is no less than precious treasure that must be respected and preserved.

India is a story in itself. There have been civilizations and archaeological facts that are constantly being researched about the birth place of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Though many times there are fake inventions, there seems a lot of history in the shrines and temples in India. Each depiction of God and villains seems appropriate with the truth winning over the evil. Each time and place has the new emergence of a Hindu God who takes care of the three worlds and slays the evil. A swastika or an Om is a revered sign and mentioned as prosperity. There are many symbols like the Trishul or the Trident which is not displayed everywhere as it is considered aggressive. It is customary to smear ash or sandalwood powder in the forehead as it cools the mind. These are beliefs turned to tradition and most of us follow the rules and codes.The latest generation is quite inquisitive about facts yet totally appreciates the quests of Lord Rama, the slaying of the ten headed Ravana, the piousness of Sita and the loyalty of Hanuman. Animation flicks are being created showing characters like Gathotkach the son of Bhima, Hanuman and Ganesha. Though these are kid specials, this would be the best way to teach them about Gods and religion. Dashavatar is a wonderful combination of story and the magnanimous nature of Lord Vishnu. Each avatar or creation has a set nature and character. It is mind blowing to see the story narration and is well received by the all of us. Our art and culture have direct relation with the mythology. The Shravan month is a holy time where people get religiously and maintain fasting. This is also the time for the beginning of all festivals.Magic or splendor is what we see at the Ganesh Chaturthi festival in India. The Durga Puja is another feat. South traditions relate to Lord Muruga( Karthik) or Lord Ayyappa. The shrine of Vaishnodevi in Jammu involves climbing a steep mountain of 14 kilometers bent and the mission seems accomplished once we see the holy pind. People hold allegiance and complete belief in miracles when life challenges them. Mythology is the treasure of Indian religion and must be given to our progeny.

The Mughal Empire

The great grandson of Tamerlane, Babar, who on his mother's side was descended from the famous Genghiz Khan, came to India in 1526 at the request of an Indian governor who sought Babar's help in his fight against Ibrahim Lodi, the last head of the Delhi Sultanate. Babar defeated Lodi at Panipat, not far from Delhi, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who gave the empire its first distinctive features. But it is Humayun's son, Akbar the Great, who is conventionally described as the glory of the empire. Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605, and extended his empire as far to the west as Afghanistan, and as far south as the Godavari river. Akbar, though a Muslim, is remembered as a tolerant ruler, and he even started a new faith, Din-i-Ilahi, which was an attempt to blend Islam with Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, and other faiths. He won over the Hindus by naming them to important military and civil positions, by conferring honors upon them, and by marrying a Hindu princess.

Rejoicing at birth of Prince Salim (Jahangir). Mughal, c. 1590. (Click for a large image view.)

Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, who took the title of Jahangir. In his reign (1605-1627), Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The courtly culture of the Mughals flourished under his rule; like his great grand-father, Babar, he had an interest in gardens, and Mughal painting probably reached its zenith in Jahangir's time. Jahangir married Nur Jahan, "Light of the World", in 1611. Shortly after his death in October 1627, his son, Shah Jahan, succeeded to the throne. He inherited a vast and rich empire; and at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world, exhibiting a degree of centralized control rarely matched before. Shah Jahan left behind an extraordinarily rich architectural legacy, which includes the Taj Mahal and the old city of Delhi, Shahjahanabad. As he apparently lay dying in 1658, a war of succession broke out between his four sons. The two principal claimants to the throne were Dara Shikoh, who was championed by the those nobles and officers who were committed to the eclectic policies of previous rulers, and Aurangzeb, who was favored by powerful men more inclined to turn the Mughal Empire into an Islamic state subject to the laws of the Sharia. It is Aurangzeb who triumphed, and though the Mughal Empire saw yet further expansion in the early years of his long reign (1658-1707), by the later part of the seventeenth century the empire was beginning to disintegrate.

Aurangzeb remains a highly controversial figure, and no monarch has been more subjected to the communalist reading of Indian history. He is admired by Muslim historians for enforcing the law of the Sharia and for disavowing the policies pursued by Akbar; among Hindus, laymen and historians alike, he is remembered as a Muslim fanatic and bigot. In the event, Aurangzeb's far-flung empire eventually eluded his grasp, and considerable disaffection appears to have been created among the peasantry. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, many of his vassals established themselves as sovereign rulers, and so began the period of what are called "successor states". The Mughal Empire survived until 1857, but its rulers were, after 1803, pensioners of the East India Company. The last emperor, the senile Bahadur Shah Zafar, was put on trial for allegedly leading the rebels of the 1857 mutiny and for fomenting sedition. He was convicted and transported to Rangoon, to spend the remainder of his life on alien soil.

The Mughal Empire, 1526 to 1707 Source: F. Robinson, Atlas of the Islamic World since 1500 (Oxford, 19822), p.59.

Awakening to Peace

by Ch'onsa Kim

The ordinary man looks at the world but does not see the world. He sees a reflection of self... His dreams ... His hopes ... His disappointments ... His joy ... His pain ... A mirror unto self. Yet self is but a mirror unto the world ... What is seen ... What is tasted ... What is touched ... What is heard ... What is smelled ... What is experienced of the world. Two mirrors reflecting upon each other ... Void and empty ... From the void and empty. Like our dreams ...Without depth ... Without substance. Such is illusion. Such is delusion. Such is phenomena. Such is life for the ordinary man.

It is no wonder there is pain, sorrow, lamentation in the World of Dreams. It is no wonder, for how can we be fulfilled by what has no substance? How can we make full what has no shape or form to contain? The Way of Perfect Peace cannot be found in the World of Dreams. Only when we shatter the illusions, walk through the dream awakened, can we find the auspicious, the peaceful, the pure, a place without fear, without age, without death.

Reality grows in the garden of the mind. Our world is the fruit of our thoughts that sprout from the seeds of ideas. Let our gardens be cultivated in the Way. Let there not grow a thicket of "views". Let it not blossom with the perfumed flowers of "sensuality". Let it not support the vines of "becoming". Let it not be abundant with the thorns of "ignorance". The defilements of the mind bear the fruit of "fermentations" - Weakening our clear vision, breaking us down with desire, binding our minds to the shadows, returning us the Fields of Perception, making us seek refuge in the World of Empty Sorrow (Samsara), lulling us back to the Dream.

Let us be discerning, looking and seeing what is grown. Restraining from what pleases the senses but bears poison, let our fruit always be wholesome. Let us be diligent in our tending, using all that we are, all that we have, all that there is to cultivate Peace. Tolerating all adversity, let us never abandon our garden to the wild. Let us keep the soil pure and that which nurtures the pure, avoiding all that nurtures the un-pure. Developing our skill in the Way, let our garden always be abundant in Peace. Let us be skillful in destroying the roots of the defilements:

Greed Ill will
Hostility
Denegation
Domineering
Envy
Jealousy
Hypocrisy
Fraud
Obstinacy
Presumption
Conceit
Arrogance
Vanity
Negligence

Let us feed the world with the fruits of Peace. Let us seed the gardens that surround us with the seeds of compassion.

The Way of Perfect Peace cannot be found in the defiled mind. Only by abandoning the defilements of the mind can we be awakened to the auspicious, the peaceful, the pure, a place without fear, without age, without death. The defiled mind can only bring sadness, but the pure and undefiled mind brings joy, tranquility, and happiness. Walking in virtue and wisdom we shall remain on the path of Peace. With the mind abiding in loving kindness, permeated with loving kindness, loving kindness suffuses the universe. With the mind abiding in compassion, permeated with compassion, love suffuses the universe.

Such Peace cannot be found until we escape the field of perceptions. Abandoning the perceptions of self, of what was, of what is desired, and of what could be- All is seen, All is known. Then shall we abide in the Ocean of Perfect Peace, with no sky above, no earth below, no shore that surrounds, without beginning, without end, without measure, without limit, boundless, and free... Then shall we abide in the auspicious, the peaceful, the pure, a place without fear, without age, without death... Then shall we awaken to Perfect Peace (Nirvana).

The first step... is letting go...

Buddhism

In the sixth century before the Christian era, religion was forgotten in India. The lofty teachings of the Vedas were thrown into the background. There was much priest craft everywhere. The insincere priests traded on religion. They duped the people in a variety of ways and amassed wealth for themselves. At such a critical period, when there were cruelty, degeneration and unrighteousness everywhere, reformer Buddha was born to save the people and disseminate the message of equality, unity and cosmic love everywhere.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda - literally "Science of Life" - is based on the twin principles of wholeness and balance.

As a holistic healing tradition, Ayurveda recommends treating the "whole" person-body, mind, senses, emotions and spirit-instead of following the "one-cause-one-cure" principle and focusing on the symptoms of the moment.

Articles by Dr. Bhavna Joshi, MD
Anti-Cancer Herbs

Articles by Dr. Dheeraj Malhotra, MD
Heavy Metals in Ayurveda

Articles by Dr. Gaurang Joshi, BAMS
Baldness (Alopecia) and Alopacia Areata and its Ayurvedic Management
Chronic Bronchial Asthma (Svasa Roga) and its Management in Ayurveda
Leucoderma (White Patches,Vitiligo) and its Management in Ayurveda

Articles by Dr. Joban Modha and Dr. Neha Modha
Are All Ayurveda Drugs 100 % Safe As Claimed?
Allergy and Ayurveda
Role of Ayurveda in the Management of Cancer
Swine Influenza and Ayurvedic Management

Articles by Dr. Krishna R.S.
Inducting Rasayana Therapy in Our Daily Routine
Therapeutic uses of Honey in Ayurveda

Articles by Dr. Lakshmi Prasuna, MD (Ayu)
Management of Hypothyroidism in Ayurveda

Articles by Nancy Lonsdorf, MD
Menopause and Natural Hormone Replacement Therapy

Articles by Neria Harish Hebbar, MD
Text and History of Ayurveda

Articles by Dr. Savitha Suri
An Ayurvedic Guide for Beautiful Skin
Ayurveda Regimen for Winter Depression
Ayurvedic Approach to Indigestion and Concept of Agni
Ayurvedic Health Care in Humid Weather
Ayurvedic Remedies for Digestive Disorders
Ayurvedic Remedies for Erectile Dysfunction
Beaming Health with Neem
Care for the Glittering Pair
Causes of Low Sperm Count � An Ayurvedic View
Commending Cumin seeds
Hair Loss Prevention through Ayurveda
Healthcare for Globe Trotters
Hysteric about Headache?
Keep Back Pain at Bay
Keeping Well When Monsoon Dwells
Manifold Wonders of Massage Therapy
Panchakarma- The Detoxification Therapy in Ayurveda
Psoriasis
Preventing Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy through Ayurveda
Treating Dry Skin Condition Naturally Applying Ayurveda Principles

Articles by Dr. Shahshikant Patwardhan
Ayurvedic Treatment of Arthritis (Painful Joints)
Ayurvedic Treatment of Fibromyalgia (CFS)

Articles by Shreelata Suresh
5 Ways To Introduce Ayurvedic Principles Into Your Daily Diet
An Introduction to Neem Rasayana
Ayurveda Can Help You Look Beautiful This Spring!
Ayurvedic Skin Care: Eating Your Way to Clear Beautiful Skin
Ayurvedic Skin Care Rasayanas
Ayurvedic Tips for Summer Skin Care
Balancing Vata Dosha
Candida: Restoring Balance with Ayurveda
Cooking with the Mung Bean the Ayurvedic Way
Eating for Balance
Eating for Balance - 2
Five Ayurvedic Suggestions for Attaining Your Ideal Weight Naturally
Hair and Scalp Massage
Managing Mental Stress Overload with Ayurveda
Raw Foods and Ayurveda
Six Basic Steps to Health and Longevity
The Ayurvedic Skincare Routine: Facial Skin
The Simple Art of Washing Your Face
Treat your Feet to some TLC from Ayurveda

Articles by Dr. V.V. Lakshmiprasuna, M.D.(Ayu)
Prevention of Aging with Ayurveda

Articles by Vaidya Ramakant Mishra
A Good Night's Sleep
Ayurveda and Day-to-day Stress
Ayurveda: No Longer Just "Vaidji Ki Pudiya"
Balance and the Doshas
Boost Your Energy With Power Foods
Don't Skip Breakfast: An Ayurvedic Perspective
Eating Right, The Ayurvedic Way: 5 Tips for Good Digestion
Exercise the Ayurvedic Way!
Healing Waters
Seven Things You Can Do to Keep Your Skin from Aging
The Amazing Amla Berry
Triphala: Universal Skin Rasayana
You Can Stay Healthy This Winter
Zero In Your Child's Health Needs with Ayurveda

Articles by Vasu Nargundkar
9 Tips for Healthy Hair
Aromatherapy: For Personal Balance in Every Season
Bliss at your Fingertips: The Daily Oil Massage
Feed Your Skin...and Water it Too!
Seven Keys to Unlock Your Brain Power
Stress-Free Holiday Travel
Ten Commandments for Naturally Beautiful Skin
Warning: Stress Can Be Hazardous to your Skin

Astrology /Vedic Jyotish

Life is simple for those who can comfortably dismiss astrology as bunk, superstition and a global mental aberration; a globally shared delusion that plagues some modern minds. Having said thus, the skeptics can then return to their lives with all the random inherent chaos as they continue to make their way through the foggy minefields that represent life and its uncertain realities for them. For the rest of us, presumably the majority - the strength of faith varies across the sample and in any given individual from one time to another as well; we must continue to seek the answer, the solution.

A Sum of our Parts by Rohiniranjan
Adhik Mas and the Blue Moon by Jagdish C Maheshri
Astro-Treasures That Have Survived Through Time by Rohiniranjan
Astrology for the Feeble Mind! by Subrata Mukherjee
Astronomical Identity of Saptha Rishi's, Dhurva and Arundhathi by Dr. S. Balakrishna
Beginnings of a Journey on a Never-Ending Path by Rohiniranjan
Belief in God Vs Astrology/Jyotish/Horoscopes by Bhagwat Shah
Can Signatures Affect Your Destiny? by Pt. Aaadietya Pandey
Consciousness in a Horoscope by Rohiniranjan
Cycle of Anniversaries by Rohiniranjan
Dating Mahabharata – 2 Eclipses in Thirteen Days by Dr. S. Balakrishna
Enigma or Confusion? by Rohiniranjan
Fate or Free-Will by Rohiniranjan
For Beginners in Jyotish by Rohiniranjan
How Astrology Works by Rohiniranjan
How to make Your Signature Lucky? by Pt. Aaadietya Pandey
Is Jyotish incapable of reaching beyond events?
Some Thoughts on a Modern Myth! by Rohiniranjan
Impact of Mars as per Bhrigu Nadi System by Dr. Shanker Adawal
Jyotish: A recipe for easier living
or a wake-up nudge for the prepared soul? by Rohiniranjan
Jyotish: A Vedic Approach to Astrology by Rohiniranjan
Jyotish and Scientific Method by Rekha I. Nambiar
Kalapurusha and Human Karma by Rohiniranjan
Maya in the Horoscope by Rohiniranjan
Methodology and Effects of Mercury in Various Houses by Dr. Shanker Adawal
Moon and Its Nodes by Rohiniranjan
My Two Cents on "Eastern & Western Astrology..." by Rohiniranjan
Myths in Jyotish by Rohiniranjan
Nangol Houses of Travancore by Dr. V. Sankaran Nair
Personal Planets in Vedic Astrology by Rohiniranjan
Pisces: The Sign of Mystics by Rohiniranjan
Remedies in Vedic Astrology by Rohiniranjan
Research in Astrology: Pondering Upon some issues by Rohiniranjan
Retrograde Planets: Another Perspectiveby Rohiniranjan
Sade-Sati of Saturn by Rohiniranjan
Saturn Blessings by Rohiniranjan
Science and Astrology by Ashish Khandekar
Some Thoughts on Jyotish of Today by Rohiniranjan
Taming the Malefic Saturn by Tom Beal
The 12th House in a Horoscope by Rohiniranjan
The Astrological Signature of Alternative Energy-Healersby Rohiniranjan
The Cosmological Insights of the Vedic Seers by Subra Narayan
The Horoscope of Mahatma Gandhi by Dean Dominic De Lucia
The Jyotish Journey Continues.... by Rohiniranjan
Tithi by Jagdish C. Maheshri
Traps in Jyotish by Rohiniranjan
Tropical and Sidereal Zodiac Systems by Jagdish C. Maheshri
Varga Chakras (Kundalis) in Jyotish Classics? by Rohiniranjan
Who will Pursue Medical Profession? by Dr. Shanker Adawal
Y- Chromosome's and 'Gothra' by Dr. S. Balakrishna

Architecture of India

One definition of a great civilization is the magnificence of its architectural legacy, and India is surely among the foremost. The country is dotted with the remains of ages gone by, many world famous like the Taj and Qutab Minar, and some still cloaked in obscurity, off the tourist circuit, waiting to be 'discovered', but architectural gems nevertheless.

Architecture of India - is an attempt to present the Indian architecture for what it is:
an intelligent, innovative response to local conditions.

Articles by Ashish Nangia
Introduction
The Indus Valley Civilization
The Vedic Age
Communion with the Soul: The rise of Buddhism
The Evolution of the Temple
Poetry in Stone: Crystallization of the Hindu Temple
Rock Cut Architecture
Elephanta Caves : Photo Essay
The North Indian Style Evolves
Theories and Principles of Indian Temple Construction
The Glorious Culmination
Tamil Magnificence - Developments in South India
The Temple Cities of the South
The Hoysalas of Karnataka
Death of an Empire: The Ruins of Hampi
The Islamic Influence
The Towers of God
Consolidation and Continuation: The Beginnings of an Indo-Islamic Culture
The Megalomania of Ala-ud-Din Khilji
The Tughlaq Years
Firoz Shah and After
The End of the Delhi Sultanate
Integration and Absorption : Regional Variations of Islamic Architecture
The Pleasure Palaces of Mandu
Brick and Bamboo at Bengal
The Deccan : Gulbarga and Bidar
The Deccan : Golconda and Bijapur
Rajput Architecture : The Beginning of a National Identity
A Quirk of Fate – Babur, Humayun and Sher Shah
The Mughal Empire : Fortresses and Citadels
Fatehpur Sikri : The City of Victory
Splendor and Decadence in Delhi
The Mughal Empire : Mosques and Tombs – I
The Mughal Empire : Mosques and Tombs - 2
The Mughal Empire : The Taj Mahal
Mughal Decline and Princely Architecture
“For Christians and Spices” - the Portuguese and the Estada da India
Trade to Empire - From the East India Company to Angrez Raj
British Colonial Architecture - An Imperial Vision
A Search for an Imperial Style : British Colonial Architecture
The Seats of Power - Shimla and New Delhi
New Delhi - A New Capital
The Architecture of the Princely States
British Colonial Architecture: Towns, Cantonments and Bungalows
Nascent Nationalism and Indian Architecture
Partition and After : New Challenges for a New Nation
The City of Chandigarh I
The City of Chandigarh II
The Beginnings of an Architectural Culture - Delhi: Post Independence Challenges
Towards Re-Writing A History of Indian Architecture
Post Colonial India and its Architecture - I
Post Colonial India and its Architecture - II
Post Colonial India and its Architecture - III
The Auroville Experiment
The Indian Vernacular : A Rich Tradition

The Hoysalas of Karnataka

by Ashish Nangia

The flourishing temple styles in North India - both the Khajuraho and the Orissi versions - were brought to a rude end with the Muslim invasion. When the Muslims consolidated their hold over North India, temple-building activity virtually stopped. Entire families of skilled craftsmen were now presented with two choices - the first of which was to work for their new masters and abandon the idea of building a temple as an offering to God. This resulted in the fusion of Persian and Indian building styles and was to result in an entirely new idiom, as we shall see later.

Another option was to migrate further and further south, in search of work and new patrons, where Muslim influence had not yet made inroads. This was the region around modern Mysore, where the hitherto unknown Hoysala tribe was making its first moves towards glory. Having overthrown their former overlords, the Cholas, the Hoysalas were in no mood to imitate their architectural style and were looking for something with its own distinct identity. The craftsmen migrating from the north were able to provide just such an impetus.

The merging of the Dravidian and North Indian styles created a temple that is unique, so much so that it is often classified as the Hoysala style. The early experiments were found on the extreme edges of the kingdom, around ancient Dwarasamudra. The profile of the temples at Ittagi, Gadag and Lakhundi reveals that the craftsman's most visible contribution was a subtle merging of the two spire forms - the horizontal tiers of the pyramidal south Indian vimana and the round-shouldered elegance of the northern shikhara.

Gradually this hybrid evolved into an identifiable style, rivaling in grace and beauty its predecessors.

The Star in Plan

To add to its distinctiveness, the Hoysala temple in plan composed of numerous cellas or garbha-grihas served by a common mandapa. The plan of each of these cellas was a star. The departure from the accepted square form of the temple is understandable when we analyze the plan and see that it is made up of a grid of rotating squares. The resulting outline thus emerges as a star. The mandapa remained a square, though it was now distinguished by circular columns, the shafts of which had been lathed and thus acquired a number of parallel knife-edges.

Among the examples of the developed Hoysala style, the Chenna Kesava temple at modern Belur is one of the finest. This was designed and planned by the architect Janaka Acharya at the behest of King Vishnuvardhan.

Though built around a single shrine, the temple has all the distinguishing features of the Hoysala style - a pillared mandapa, bell-shaped towers and above all the star-shaped plan. The gaps between the outer pillars were covered with a jaali meant to provide privacy for the Brahmins, and especially the 'highly seductive dancing of the devdasis'.*

The mandapa of this temple has an extremely beautiful circular stone platform, lustrously polished after years and years of dance on it - the ritualistic, devotional Bharata Natyam of the South.

Splendor in Halebid

Not content with this little gem in Belur, the king commissioned an even larger and more magnificent temple in his new capital city of Halebid. The architect proceeded to lay out two identical temples, parallel and connected at their transepts.

The Halebid temple is one of the most fitting climaxes to the sculptor's art in India. While architecturally it was not revolutionary, especially after Belur, it is in its rich sensuous sculpture that this example comes into its own. The high plinth of the temple is a virtual tapestry of sculpture, with bands of dancing figures, animals, vegetation and other objects coming to life on its surface.

According to Percy Brown, the 'Halebid Temple and the Parthenon are probably the two extremes of the architectural art of the world'. 'The one revels in the cold purity of its form and the other in the warm complexity of its sculptural architectonics'.**

The Last Chapter

The Hoysala temples were among the last temples of consequence to be built in India. Muslim invasions were fast taking their toll and kings were more concerned about fighting off the invaders than with artistic and architectural endeavors.

However, the Vijayanagara empire further south held on a little bit longer. The marvels at Hampi are the last examples of mediaeval Hindu architecture we shall discuss - in the next column.

June 23, 2001

* Grover, Satish The Architecture of India - Buddhist and Hindu, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi, 1980.
** ibid

Images under license with Gettyimages.com

Southern dynasties in India

Southern Dynasties in India : The sultans' failure to hold securely the Deccan and South India resulted in the rise of competing southern dynasties: the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527) and the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565). Zafar Khan, a former provincial governor under the Tughluqs, revolted against his Turkic overlord and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in 1347. The Bahmani Sultanate, located in the northern Deccan, lasted for almost two centuries, until it fragmented into five smaller states in 1527. The Bahmani Sultanate adopted the patterns established by the Delhi overlords in tax collection and administration, but its downfall was caused in large measure by the competition and hatred between deccani (domiciled Muslim immigrants and local converts) and paradesi (foreigners or officials in temporary service). The Bahmani Sultanate initiated a process of cultural synthesis visible in Hyderabad, where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of deccani architecture and painting.

Southern Dynasties in India :

Founded in 1336, the empire of Vijayanagar (named for its capital Vijayanagar, "City of Victory," in present-day Karnataka) expanded rapidly toward Madurai in the south and Goa in the west and exerted intermittent control over the east coast and the extreme southwest. Vijayanagar rulers closely followed Chola precedents, especially in collecting agricultural and trade revenues, in giving encouragement to commercial guilds, and in honoring temples with lavish endowments. Added revenue needed for waging war against the Bahmani sultans was raised by introducing a set of taxes on commercial enterprises, professions, and industries. Political rivalry between the Bahmani and the Vijayanagar rulers involved control over the Krishna-Tunghabadhra river basin, which shifted hands depending on whose military was superior at any given time. The Vijayanagar rulers' capacity for gaining victory over their enemies was contingent on ensuring a constant supply of horses--initially through Arab traders but later through the Portuguese--and maintaining internal roads and communication networks. Merchant guilds enjoyed a wide sphere of operation and were able to offset the power of landlords and Brahmans in court politics. Commerce and shipping eventually passed largely into the hands of foreigners, and special facilities and tax concessions were provided for them by the ruler. Arabs and Portuguese competed for influence and control of west coast ports, and, in 1510, Goa passed into Portuguese possession.

The city of Vijayanagar itself contained numerous temples with rich ornamentation, especially the gateways, and a cluster of shrines for the deities. Most prominent among the temples was the one dedicated to Virupaksha, a manifestation of Shiva, the patron-deity of the Vijayanagar rulers. Temples continued to be the nuclei of diverse cultural and intellectual activities, but these activities were based more on tradition than on contemporary political realities. (However, the first Vijayanagar ruler--Harihara I--was a Hindu who converted to Islam and then reconverted to Hinduism for political expediency.) The temples sponsored no intellectual exchange with Islamic theologians because Muslims were generally assigned to an "impure" status and were thus excluded from entering temples. When the five rulers of what was once the Bahmani Sultanate combined their forces and attacked Vijayanagar in 1565, the empire crumbled at the Battle of Talikot.

Southern Dynasties in India page

Data as of September 1995

India- Gupta and Harsha The classical Age

Gupta age - The Classical Age refers to the period when most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. A.D. 320-550). Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis. The golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the Gupta Empire had vanished from the historical scene.

The military exploits of the first three rulers--Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415)--brought all of North India under their leadership. From Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship was threatened and by 500 ultimately ruined by the Hunas (a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia), who were yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India and then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric.

Under Harsha Vardhana (or Harsha, r. 606-47), North India was reunited briefly, but neither the Gupta Empire nor Harsha controlled a centralized state, and their administrative styles rested on the collaboration of regional and local officials for administering their rule rather than on centrally appointed personnel. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama.

The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple.

Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting (see Science and Technology, ch. 6).

The Southern Rivals

When Gupta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle Ganga Valley and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of Gupta demise but also in the Deccan and in South India, which acquired a more prominent place in history. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. Three features, as political scientist Radha Champakalakshmi has noted, commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period. First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of Sanskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order. Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments. Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556-757) of Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the tenth centuries) of Madurai. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 to 973. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.

Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.

The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions--Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Bombay, or Mumbai in Marathi), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Kanchipuram (in Tamil Nadu) are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers. By the mid-seventh century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support.

Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of vernacular literature in all four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism--Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the twelfth century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries. Gupta Empire page. Data as of September 1995